Jay Hersh
January 8, 1998
copyright 1996 Jay Hersh
Hardly anyone would place the modern computer keyboard in the rank of medieval torture
devices such as the rack or iron maiden, and yet today there are tens of thousands of
people in whom the keyboard strikes the same terror as felt by those of that heinous era.
These modern individuals are people crippled, or in the processed of being crippled, by
the enormous stresses placed upon their bodies by the daily utilization of this device.
Many have lost their livelihood. Others confront the daily dilemma of stoically facing
down the pain inflicted upon them by the keyboard use that their jobs require, or
abandoning those jobs. These jobs are often well paid professional careers, making them
difficult to leave. Often individuals who find themselves in this unenviable position toil
on in soldierly fashion until the pain and medical toll becomes too much to bear. By that
time however it is often too late, serious and long lasting physical damage is often the
consequence.
With the increased prevalence of computers in the workplace and classroom, the
population potentially subject to such injuries grows daily. Recognition of the problem,
development of alternative computer interface technologies, and integration of such
technologies into the workplace and classroom proceeds slowly. An understanding of the
history of this seemingly benign device and the market forces which underlie its
development will demonstrate that while not born of conspiracy the keyboards
dominance as a computer interface paradigm, and the effects of that dominance, comprise a
form of tyranny towards those who have been disabled by its use. It will also demonstrate
that the time has come to rethink the modes in which we interface with computers, and to
begin to effect a transition from the outdated mode of keyboard input, in which the human
is forced to adapt to the machine, to new modes of input, in which the machines
power is harnessed to adapt it to the user.
The origin of the modern computer keyboard began humbly with the invention of the
typewriter by Christopher Latham Sholes in September of 1867. The device was patented the
following year. It was improved and marketed by Remington beginning about 1877. By the
beginning of the 20th century the typewriter was finding its way into businesses.
Other devices for inputting alphanumeric data were also in use by the beginning of the
20th century. Punched paper tape was experimented with for use with the telegraph as early
as 1881 although Morse code was used almost exclusively until about 1917 when some of the
main circuits, especially those used by wire news services like API and UPI were converted
to using mechanical printers. Punched card systems, used for many years to control looms,
also began to be employed as a means to store alphanumeric data for use with mechanical
tabulating machines at this time.
In the 20th century a confluence occurred. Teletype machines, which married the
abilities of the typewriter (which served as both an input and a printing device) with the
telegraph, were developed and introduced during the 1930s. Initially these machines
printed on narrow paper tape, but by the end of the 30s page printers appeared as
well. The punched paper tape technology developed in 1881 also provided a means by which
the user could store messages and then play them back through a mechanical reader.
Similarly punched card systems were interfaced with typewriter like keyboards that
facilitated input of numerical data. Such punch card systems, referred to as keypunches,
were the basis of numerical tabulating systems of which IBM was selling over one million
dollars worth in 1931. Such was the prevalence of both the punch card and teletype
technologies by the beginning of World War 2 that even the invention of computers would
not eliminate them as input technologies for over thirty years. Instead, as we shall see,
they became important components of the interface with these new devices.
World War 2 created a dramatic need for computing devices that could rapidly perform
calculations for creation of numerical tables used in such activities as weapons targeting
and code breaking. Even before the War however companies such as Bell Laboratories had
begun work on computing devices. In September of 1940 G. R. Stibitz demonstrated the Model
1 which utilized input from a teletype keyboard or paper tape and presented output on them
as well. This demonstration was additionally unique in that it was accomplished in remote
fashion over telephone lines, something that would not be duplicated for another decade.
Perhaps the next major milestone was the development of the ENIAC computer in 1946.
This computer utilized an IBM punched card reader as its input device and presented its
output on a card punch controlled by the ENIAC. This machine was followed by the BINAC in
1948 which utilized a typewriter keyboard to input data directly onto magnetic tape. The
tape was read into the computer that performed its calculations and printed out its
results onto an electromechanically controlled typewriter. This mode of operations was
known as batch mode computing since each set of data and instructions was submitted to the
computer one batch at a time.
The 50s saw the beginning of the commercialization of computing. Computers such
as the UNIVAC utilized keyboards as control consoles but their primary purposes were for
numerical calculation. Input was accomplished via batch mode, predominately through the
use of punched cards. Output was performed via line printers which had evolved from
typewriters to provide dedicated high speed output printing. The development of commercial
electromechanically controlled typewriters such as the IBM Selectric contributed to the
commercialization of these main frame computers by providing a technology that allowed the
computer operator easy control of the device as compared to computers of the prior
generation with their numerous switches and complex wiring.
Even as batch mode computing was commercialized universities such as MIT began
experimenting with multi user systems, known as time sharing systems, where each user
could simultaneously share the computers resources via their own teletype terminal.
The earliest of these experiments began in the late 50s. By 1964 MIT, Bell
Laboratories and General Electric had developed such a time sharing system called MULTICS.
The development of time sharing systems created a need for better interfaces than the
awkward teletype. It fueled the development of video display terminals (a.k.a. VDT)
technologies in the late 60s. The VDT joined the input capabilities of a typewriter
with features of the cathode ray tube (basically TV tubes). This allowed text to be
displayed in a non printed manner that was faster and could be directly edited.
As early as 1967 Control Data and Sanders were manufacturing VDTs. Harris was selling
them in 1969, and Hewlett Packard by 1972. The development of the VDT used in cooperation
with time sharing computer systems represents a major turning point in the utilization of
the keyboard as an input device. Prior to the advent of the VDT the keyboards used to
access computers were either on teletype machines or on punch card keypunches. These
machines had the inherent limitation of relatively slow input speeds due to the nature of
the electromechanical linkages from which they were constructed. The VDT had no such
inherent limitations. The switches connected to the keys sent electronic impulses directly
to the computer, with no mechanical linkage involved. The only limitations were the speed
at which the computer could buffer the input sent to it. Initially of course computer
speeds were relatively slow so that the limits of the human users typing speed were
not surpassed by the ability of the machines to process the alphanumeric input. As we
shall shortly see all this was to change with the coming personal computer revolution.
Almost simultaneous with the commercialization of multi user systems in the late
60s was the introduction of minicomputers by companies such as Data General, Prime
Computer, Hewlett Packard and others. These computers were small single user machines
typically utilized via a teletype console. Their use became more widespread during the
70s, and teletype interfaces were quickly abandoned in favor of VDT technology as
the interface for these small systems.
The 70s saw a rapid expansion of main frame and time sharing systems in
universities and private companies. These systems were utilized via batch mode for the
main frames, or VDT for the time sharing systems. By the late 70s to early 80s
however the use of punch cards had plummeted. IBM, whose success in the main frame
business was due at least in part to moving their pre-computer era punch card customer
base onto main frames, discontinued selling them entirely. The VDT had achieved dominance
of the computer interface paradigm. This alone was not significant in regard to the
expansion of repetitive strain injuries caused by its use. The next factor was to be the
enormous proliferation of computers and their rapid increase in speed.
By the end of the 70s computer use had expanded significantly however it was
still mostly the province of universities and businesses due to the significant costs
involved in purchasing and operating these machines. The expansion of minicomputers
however led to increased availability of the components used to assemble them. This led
electronic hobbyists to experiment with assembling systems of their own. It was these such
hobbyists who in 1977 founded Apple Computer to market a small computer system which cost
$1200 upon its introduction, a cost that made the systems affordable to a significantly
larger number of people. Shortly thereafter, in 1981, IBM followed with the introduction
of the personal computer, or PC for short. Other early producers included Tandy Corp. With
the $300 TRS model computers first available in 1977, and Osborne which produced a 28lb
portable computer for $1800 in 1981. By 1985 over 3 million microcomputers had been
shipped to businesses. Today there are hundreds of millions of personal computers in use.
The rapid expansion of computers saw little in the way of consideration for the human
interface of these devices. The initial computers of the 40s and 50s employed
teletypes or electromechanical typewriters as their interface since these components were
readily available. In the same manner the personal computer revolution of the late
70s and early 80s employed electronic keyboard and VDT technology as the
interfaces since these components were readily available. Perhaps the most attention paid
to the human interface was by IBM in 1984, and was in regard to the compatibility of the
keyboard layout of the PC/AT with respect to the layout of its predecessor the Selectric
typewriter. Completely overlooked in the computer revolution was the impact of introducing
machines that could easily process the input of even the fastest of trained typists, to a
population of users with predominately little or no typing skills. The result of this has
been a near epidemic of the incidence of repetitive strain injuries in some user
populations, especially among those who make extensive use of computers without the
benefit of training in typing skills.
One issue that has not yet been mentioned is the layout of the keyboard itself. The
industry standard keyboard layout that possesses a virtually complete monopoly on
computers today is referred to as the QWERTY keyboard because of the arrangement of the
keys in the upper row. This layout is in fact different from the original layout designed
by Sholes in the late 1800s. When initially introduced in 1877 the first typewriter models
were utilized by typing with only two fingers. The development of 10 finger typing is
attributed to a Mrs. L. V. Longley in 1878. Shortly after the concept of "touch
typing" was introduced (attributed to Frank E. McGurrin, a federal court clerk in
Salt Lake City), whereby typists would type without looking at the keys, having memorized
their locations. These new techniques, and some celebrated typing competitions,
demonstrated the worth of the new machine and led to continuing increases in sales. The
subsequent superiority of typing speeds over handwriting speeds (the latter rated at 20
words per minute) was in itself problematic as proficient typists easily caused the
typewriter mechanisms to jam.
Sholes himself redesigned the keyboard layout into the now familiar QWERTY layout we
see so predominately today. The QWERTY layout was designed to maximize the separation on
the keyboard of the most frequently used keys in order to reduce jamming of the mechanism
that arose as a result of the increased input speeds achieved by touch typists. As a
result of this rearrangement the keys that were used most frequently were not as easily
accessible to the typist. Thus the QWERTY layout effectively reduced the speed at which
human users could type, thereby preventing their jamming the mechanism too often.
Other keyboard layouts exist. The most notable one is named Dvorak after its inventor,
August Dvorak who was an early Ergonomics researcher at the University of Washington. In
1936 he analyzed the English language to determine which letters were most frequently
used. He then rearranged the keyboard layout so that these keys were positioned on the
home row, that is, the row under the fingers of a typist in the rest position. By grouping
the keys such that those most used were closest to the typists fingers reaching was
minimized and typing speed was increased. Unfortunately the introduction of this alternate
layout, despite its efficiency, was not successful. The QWERTY layout had become a defacto
standard and no typewriter manufacturer wished to introduce a product that would require
its users to have to retrain the manner in which they worked. Thus it is that today the
standard computer keyboards still utilize a layout designed for a device first marketed
over a century ago.
As an aside it is also informative to take a look at other pieces of the computer human
interface that have become dominant, and some newly emerging alternatives. Pointing
devices (by this I mean a device for selecting a location on the VDT screen), most notably
the mouse, invented in 1968 by Douglas Engelbart, are a major part of the interface today.
The mouse was not the first pointing device to be invented. Light pens, which utilize a
light sensor and took advantage of the manner in which the VDT refreshes the screen, and
track balls which utilize mechanical mechanisms similar to the mouse were also in
existence at about the same time. The light pen was a popular early pointing device since
it allowed screen positions to be selected directly by simply pointing at them. This
facilitated input for mechanical design software such as many of the early CAD/CAM
systems. Prime Computer Corp. was among those vendors who provided such an interface in
their IMLAC system of the late 70s and early 80s. IBM also had similar systems
for mechanical design during this period. The track ball was used similarly but like its
relative, the mouse, it did not directly access screen locations. Instead the cursor had
to be "dragged" across the screen to the desired location, thus it was slightly
more cumbersome to use for mechanical design.
The introduction of the Macintosh Computer in the middle 80s by Apple Computer
Corp. launched the beginning of the mouse as a widespread input paradigm. The Macintosh
was the first mass produced computer to incorporate a graphical user interface. In the IBM
PC models, and Apples first offerings, the user interfaced with a command line upon
which they entered instructions for the computer to perform. These instructions allowed
the user to manipulate files in the file storage system and to execute operating system
commands or programs. Programs would often perform screen control functions displaying
text or images upon the VDTs display. The Macintosh changed this mode of interfacing
with the computer by eliminating the need for the user to learn and memorize operating
system commands.
Instead of a command based interface, a mouse was provided, along with a graphical user
interface, which performed two functions, screen control and program execution. Files in
the file storage system, including executable programs, were displayed as images or in the
jargon of graphical user interface designers "icons". By positioning the mouse
over the icon and clicking one of its buttons the user would, in effect, be instructing
the system, via the intervening graphical user interface, to execute the program. The
simplicity of this interface paradigm increased the popularity of small computers by
eliminating the need for the user to learn the arcana of how to manipulate the
computers operating system.
While Apple was first to the market with a computer based upon this paradigm the idea
itself was not unique to them. The idea was pioneered by Xerox in their Palo Alto research
labs, and rival companies in the computer industry were also developing comparable
interfaces. The most popular of these was Microsofts Windows product. Another
entrant was the X Windows system, developed at MIT under the sponsorship of a number of
leading companies in the UNIX based scientific computing market including Digital, HP and
Sun Micro Systems. Again, as with the keyboard, the ease of use of the mouse paradigm was
paramount, but little or no attention was paid to the ergonomic impact that such a device
would have upon its users.
The early light pen systems were experimented with for handwriting input, a paradigm in
business use significantly longer than the keyboard or mouse, although not necessarily
more well suited for the human anatomy. While digitizing of handwriting was quite
feasible, handwriting itself was of no practical use in controlling computers. This is
because computers are based upon digital logic which uses numerical codes to represent
alphanumeric characters. The most common representation used is known as ASCII. For
handwriting to be practical as a computer interface the computer would need to recognize
what the user had written and convert that into the ASCII representation. This has however
proved to be a complex task. Much work has been done along these lines and the 1990s have
seen the release of several systems that are capable of performing handwriting recognition
with reasonable accuracy. Among these are the Newton from Apple Computer, a small hand
held device that was the first entrant in a class commonly referred to as personal digital
assistants or PDA for short. Other systems, which are full functionality computers in the
PC class, include the Grid by AST, the Versa by NEC, and IBMs Thinkpad.
The 90s have also seen add on pen interfaces become available for use as pointing
devices or as combination handwriting input and pointing devices. Track ball and joystick
input devices have also become more widely available although predominately as add on
devices or computer game interfaces. Certainly now as the decade begins to draw to a close
the recognition of a need for a wider range of pointing devices with which to manipulate
the graphical user interface has begun and far more variations of pointing devices are
available on the market.
This raises the question of why a proliferation of alternate pointing devices has
already gained reasonable momentum while alternatives to the QWERTY keyboard have been
slower to gain prominence in the marketplace. The most obvious reason is because of the
simplicity involved in pointing devices. As long as a common standard exists by which
these alternative pointing devices can interface with the computer the information that
these devices send is rather straightforward, a two dimensional coordinate and button
press events. Perhaps more importantly is that because of the simplicity of the devices
themselves it is quite easy for a human user to quickly adapt to a different pointing
device from one to which they are accustomed.
The keyboard however is significantly more complex in that it typically possesses over
100 keys generating approximately 120 different symbols or control characters (not
counting capitalized forms). This makes it significantly more difficult to commit to
memory knowledge of the devices layout, and thus also more difficult to change
between alternative layouts. The QWERTY layout is so predominant that despite the
existence of common cabling standards within the PC compatible and Macintosh communities
of hardware, respectively, it is only recently that new keyboard designs have become
available. Another factor may also lie in the continued proliferation and maturation of
the computer industry in that it is becoming more common for individuals to now have a
computer dedicated for their exclusive personal use versus computer resources shared among
groups within a home or office environment. This would have the effect of allowing
individuals to customize the computer interface to better suit themselves without having
to worry about the impact upon other users.
The Dvorak layout is among these new designs and is beginning to gain wider acceptance.
More novel designs have also emerged utilizing keyboard cabling standards and geared
around finger motions but in a significantly different manner. Chord based
"keyboards" which rely upon the user pressing combination of keys in a manner
similar to playing a musical instrument to generate characters are now marketed. Another
design utilizes several switches placed in close proximity so that the user may strike
them with small movements of the fingers up, down or sideways.
In addition to these more novel means for manipulating switches to generate characters
for the computer more ergonomic designs have been developed for the traditional QWERTY
keyboard. These designs focus on reducing the awkward body positioning involved in
utilizing a keyboard. Split keyboard designs that eliminate the need for the user to
rotate their arms into a palm downward position are beginning to emerge. Variations on
this design that eliminate the need for the user to reach forward to access the keyboard
(a source of neck and shoulder strain) have also begun to emerge.
Alternate keyboard and pointing devices are however only an incremental modification on
existing computer-human interface paradigms. Both of these still rely upon some type of
mechanical interaction between the human and the computer be it for handwriting, pointer
positioning, or manipulating a mechanical device to generate character and control input
into the computer. More recently the increased speed of computing devices has made
possible a new means of inputting information into the computer, namely speech
recognition. The use of speech as a means of human communication clearly predates the use
of formal written language. Additionally speech rates which typically top 120 words per
minute exceed the communication rates of either handwriting (20 words per minute) or
typing (80 to 100 words per minute for well trained typists), thus making it perhaps the
most natural means for humans to communicate with computers.
Speech recognition is just transcending its infancy. Presently several products are
available for the home and office computer market. These products such as DragonDictate
from Dragon Systems, Voice from Kurzweil, Voice Type from IBM, all for PCs, and Power
Secretary from Articulate Systems for the Macintosh all utilize a mode of speech referred
to as discrete speech. Discrete speech requires the user to speak with short pauses
between their words. While this is not necessarily a natural mode for human speech, input
rates of as fast as 90 words per minute with accuracy rates exceeding 95% are reported to
be achievable on these systems. Continued increases in computing power and algorithmic
efficiency will likely lead to development of products capable of performing continuous
speech recognition for most users in the near future.
Speech recognition has been a godsend as a means by which to interface with the
computer for individuals whose ability to manipulate mechanical input devices has been
limited or eliminated by the development of repetitive strain injuries developed as a
result of long term usage of these devices. In its present state speech recognition still
comprises a synthetic alternative to the keyboard. This is because most applications
written today are written around the keyboard input paradigm. Applications are also
sometimes written around the mouse/pointer device as an input paradigm. Thus for speech
recognition systems to be compatible with applications written today need to work in such
a manner that they can synthesize the functionality of the keyboard and the mouse. Most
entry level computers being sold in 1996 not only possess the speed necessary to
accommodate speech recognition systems, but they also possess multimedia capabilities.
This means that from this point in time forward the capability for speech recognition to
become a user interface paradigm tightly coupled with the capabilities of the computer is
present. However it will still require a change in the mindset of user interface and
application designers before it is possible for speech recognition to become a native
input methodology the way the mouse and keyboard presently are.
The future of computer/human interface paradigms is not written in stone. It has seen a
constant evolution during the short history of the computer. It will surely continue to
evolve. A fundamental change will occur however as it does evolve. For the first time the
power of the computer itself will begin to be harnessed aggressively towards making the
machine itself adapt to its user, rather than the user adapting to the machine. Touch
screen and pen pointing devices, handwriting, and speech recognition interfaces will
continue to make inroads into the computing interface. Devices where the keyboard is of
little significance or possibly not even physically present will gain greater acceptance.
Such devices exist today (this article was written with one) although they are generally
more expensive and not sold as mainstream products. As these new interface technologies
prove their worth they will become more tightly integrated into computer systems.
Application software design paradigms will shift to accommodate these technologies.
In addition standardization of cabling and data transmission mechanisms will provide
significant benefit to all users, especially disabled ones. Such standardization (possibly
via keyboard cabling standards presently found on PC compatible computers) will allow
individuals to possess their own small portable computers for use as personal input
devices that they can connect to any computer they might need to utilize. In some respects
the common PC cabling standard for keyboards is spawning exactly this kind of behavior.
Some individuals now have an input device (for instance customized ergonomic keyboards)
for their own particular needs that they carry with them and simply attach to any computer
(well most any computer anyway) they need to. The promise is there for existing
technologies like laptop computers with handwriting and/or speech recognition systems to
perform a comparable function as a personal handwriting/speech recognition engine trained
to the individual user, but capable of serving as an interface to any computer the
individual would need to access.
By virtue of its overwhelming prevalence the traditional QWERTY keyboard layout has
dominated, and continues to dominate, as an input paradigm. Its days as such are
numbered however. The continued physical toll in mounting injuries to its users will
inevitably highlight the history of this device. The glaring fact that it was never born
of any rational design with regard to the anatomy of its intended users, but rather simply
evolved from a century of happenstance invention, will eventually cause its role as an
interface technology to be reevaluated. Those injured by this device, a group composed
predominately of computer literate individuals, will create the core constituency who will
lead the charge for its demise. Aided by the increasing power of computing, and
entrepreneurs who will harness that power in increasingly ingenious ways, new interface
technologies will evolve. We must only hope that the type of market forces that suppressed
acceptance of the Dvorak keyboard layout for 60 years will not also doom these new
technologies. If so it would surely prove the keyboard a tyrant.
About the Author
I have a BS in Electrical Engineering from
University of Rochester and a Masters in Computer Systems Engineering from Rensselaer.
Once upon a time until I injured myself to the point of being forced to change careers, I
was a programmer working on 3D graphic software protocol at the X Consortium.
Return to Articles Index
|